Miracle Mushrooms

The walls are melting, reality is fading away, you are now one with the entire cosmos in body, mind and spirit. You are no longer occupy a physical presence on the Earth. Past, preset, and future stretch out before you as you soar across the skies of the universe’s soul…oh, wait…wait, sorry, not those mushrooms.

There’s definitely a case to be made for use psilocybin in psychotherapy and neurotropic contexts, but today we’re covering something less mind-expanding and more immune-expanding. The images I included as the cover of this post is one of the hard-hitters for the immune system: turkey tail (Trametes versicolor). Y’all, I almost couldn’t even choose just one picture. Turkey Tail should be on the cover of Vogue. God is so great for creating something this beautiful, and something so powerfully beneficial for our bodies! But I don’t want to get ahead of myself here. While we’ll definitely discuss the beautiful Turkey Tail, I’d like to first cover what makes medicinal mushrooms so great, then dive into the little differences between species that make each one such a special little butterfly. This post is going to go over three mushrooms specifically: turkey tail, cordyseps, and reishi. I can hear the boo-ing through my computer, because I know everyone wants to talk about lion’s mane and oyster mushrooms and chaga, but tough luck! There’re some absolutely epic mushrooms out there, and I cannot wait to make another post about how awesome those other mushrooms are, but there’s only so much time in a day, so we’re only covering three today. We’re also going to go hard on the chemistry, so hopefully that’ll be even cooler than covering more mushrooms. Lets get into it!

What makes medicinal mushrooms so special?

As with all the best things, it all goes back to chemistry. Many medicinal mushrooms, and especially some the ones we’re going to discuss today, are packed full of beta-glucans. I know “β-glucans” sort of sounds like a downgrade from alpha-glucans, but trust me, β-glucans are the real dogs here. See, while alpha-glucans help make your skin all nice and soft, β-glucans tell your body it’s killing time! β-glucans are a big deal for our immune system, and they’re found in droves in our mushrooms.

β-glucans are part in a larger group of chemicals called polysaccharides: “poly” means many, “sacchari-” is sugar, and “ide” means derived from, so the word “polysaccharide” literally means “derived from many sugars”. Easy-peasy! It’s a bunch of sugar molecules — more or less. You could also say that “β-glucans are a large class of natural polysaccharides composed of D-glucose monomers linked through β-glycosidic bonds” (Caseiro, 2022), but that takes a lot more brain power to think about. β-glucans are often added to all kinds of food products, cosmetics, and more to increase their texture, viscosity, rheology, and other qualities, but their effects on our bodies are far from ordinary.

β-glucans are naturally found all over the place in nature, and as all things should be categorized, they have been divided into “cereal” and “non-cereal”. The cereal β-glucans are from plants like oats (3–7% β-glucans) and barley (5–11% β-glucans), and the non-cereal β-glucans are from things like algae, bacteria, seaweed, and our all-important mushrooms (6). Now, β-glucans aren’t just one kind of chemical, they come in all kinds of shapes and sizes, having all manner of awesome effects depending on what they look like. Tons of research is being published on the molecular structure of various β-glucans, since the structure determines it’s water solubility, rheological behavior, and it’s ability to interact with various proteins — if you think reading this is boring so far, try making it through a couple papers on the chemical linkage of sorghum vs oats. All β-glucans will have the same backbone structure, but they might vary in their side attachments, length, polymerization, and 3D shape (5, 23). While we have more info on this now, there’s still much more research to be done. For instance, one study that I found used a triple helical β-glucan (THG) isolated from Lentinus edodes (shiitake) and measured it’s effects on tumor growth: “THG fractions with relatively low molecular weight and/or higher stiffness showed stronger antitumor activity, revealing the significant molecular weight- and chain conformation-dependences of antitumor activity” (Zheng, et. al., 2017). However, other studies have reported that glucans with a higher molecular weight are often more effective than low-weight glucans for stimulating our immune system, especially against cancer (20-23). (Side note: I think it’s so cool how a small change can lead to wildly different effects, especially for our immune systems). The consensus seems to be that low-molecular-weight and high-molecular-weight glucans each have their roles in immune activation and anti-cancer support, and understanding how each plays off the other is key to understanding their important effects on the immune system (25). The molecular weight and structure can tell us a lot about how exactly β-glucans will respond in our bodies, but regardless of shape or size, we know they’re doing acrobatics in our bodies. On top of having vast anti-cancer and immune benefits, β-glucans have been proven maintain the balance of blood glucose, protect against cardiovascular diseases, exhibit antimicrobial, antibacterial, and antiviral properties, have anti-diabetic, and anti-inflammatory properties, and the list goes on (6, 7, 8, 9, 20-23). Additonally, β-Glucans have skin-regenerative actions, including “revitalizing immune cells in skin, regeneration of collagen-producing cells, strengthening skin ability to deal with adverse environmental effects and promotion of anti-aging and anti-wrinkles” (Du, Bian, Xu, 2013), so those oatmeal baths must’ve done something, ladies!

Why did we just cover all of that? Because it’s important to understand the chemical foundations underlying our health journey so that we can make informed decisions. “The more you know”, as they say. Also, I just think it’s really cool. Unfortunately, there are more compounds than just β-glucans in mushrooms. β-glucans are just one of many phytochemicals that make mushrooms such an incredible source of nutrients for our entire body. Each mushroom brings it’s own fancy constituents to the party: cordyseps brings cordycepin, lion’s mane brings hericenones and erinacines, reishi brings triterpenoids, etc. …But I’m sure many people probably skipped over all the nerdy science talk and are ready to get on to the more practical side of things. We get it: mushrooms have good (and very complicated) things in them, but what effects do we see when we eat different varieties of mushrooms? Time to dive into my top three (though what a tough choice to chose only three!): turkey tail, cordyseps, and reishi.

Turkey Tail is so gorgeous. Do a quick search for pictures of turkey tail mushrooms and you will not be disappointed. It’s latin name is Trametes versicolor for a reason. This is Aphrodite’s mushroom.

In the last paragraph I talked about what each mushroom was bringing to the party, and turkey tail is bringing the β-glucans. We’re back to β-glucans, baby! You can’t stop me from talking about them yet! Let me start by saying there is no way I’ll be able to properly address all of the healing properties of Trametes versicolor (formerly Coriolus versicolor). I could say “it helps with cancer” or “it strengthens the immune system”, but that’s barely scratching the surface. There’s actually been tons of research conducted on the chemical components within Turkey Tail, and here’s the great part: we’re still uncovering the benefits of these phytochemicals. The main baddies here are polysacharide-K (PSK, or Krestin) and polysaccharopeptide (PSP). So much research has been done on these chemicals that I’m not even sure where to start. But before I do, you might be wondering why I went so hard on β-glucans if we’re going to talk about other chemicals, but PSK and PSP are polysaccharides loaded with β-glucans! And as we talked about, where there are β-glucans there’s an activation of the immune system, and turkey tail has a lot of β-glucans. 60.79% β-glucans per 100g when dried, to be precise (26). That’s insane. To put this into context, cordyseps has 3.79% β-glucans per 100g when dried, lion’s mane has 35.3%, and shiitake has 20-25.3% (26). With that level of β-glucan insanity, you can’t be surprised at the research I’m about to lay down on turkey tail.

Let’s start with PSP and PSK. PSP potentiates the immune system by increasing the production of cytokines, chemokines, histamine, and prostagladin E, and white blood cells, as well as increasing the effectiveness of natural killer cells and other immune cells; it has an immunomodulatory and immunopotentiating effect (27, 31, 34). It reduces the detrimental effects of chemotherapy by alleviating fatigue, loss of appetite, vomiting, dry mouth, and other related discomforts, while also inhibiting cancer cell proliferation and induing apoptosis in cancer cells (26, 27, 31, 32). It’s also an effective antioxidant (27). PSK “is an anticancer agent used for adjuvant therapy against gastric cancer” (Tanaka et. al., 2012) and significantly increased the survival of patients even up to stage 3 gastric cancer (28-31). But it’s not just for gastric cancer, PSK has been used for “adenosarcoma, fibrosarcoma, mastocytoma, plasmacytoma, melanoma, sarcoma, carcinoma, mammary cancer, colon cancer, and lung cancer” in animals, and it “increases the effectiveness of chemotherapy in patients suffering from breast, liver, prostate, stomach, lung, and colon cancer” (36). PSK has similar effects to PSP in terms of inducing cell apoptosis in cancer cells and potentiating the actions of the immune system, especially T lymphocytes (31, 36). It’s also a wonderful antioxidant (27).

The rest of turkey tail — or better said, studies done on other various extracts of turkey tail, but that still represent turkey tail as a whole — show “wound healing, antidiabetic, antimicrobial, antifibrotic, neurotrophic, and anti-inflammatory” (Ajibola et. al., 2024) properties. It’s an astounding antioxidant for the whole body, but especially for neurodegenerative processes and neuroinflammation (27). In the brain, extracts have been found to lower inflammation and support neuron functionality (27). Turkey tail also lowers high LDL and triglyceride levels, it has a cardio-protective effect (it reduced blood pressure, improved heart function, and lowered blood sugar levels) (27). Turkey tail has both direct and indirect effects on killing cancer — it can directly kill tumor cells, and also increase the immune system’s ability to kill cancer cells (27, 31).

Suffice to say, turkey tail = dead cancer cells and a strong immune system. There are so many other studies on Trametes versicolor out there — check out the one where it’s tested as an immunomodulator against influenza (35) — but I hope this has given a brief but broad overview of the incredible benefits of this mushroom.

Cordyseps is…not as pretty, but it’s one of the greats for building up your immune and respiratory system. This is Hephaestus’ mushroom.

You might be thinking to yourself, “Hephaestus’ mushroom? With that beautiful golden color and such a fascinating shape? No way! Cordyseps it so beautiful!” Well, it’s also takes over the brains of caterpillars and slowly kills them as it drives them to create more cordyseps. Now how does it look? Here’s the full story: Ophiocordyceps sinensis mycelium takes over the brain of ghost moth caterpillars that’re living underground in the Tibetan peninsula, and once the fungus has fully taken over the ghost moth’s brain and body, cordyseps compels the caterpillar starts to crawl upward before settling just below the top layer of soil. From here, the fungus will being to grow up towards the sun. Unfortunately, you and I will most likely never have this type of cordyseps, since it can sell for more than $15,000 per pound — yikes! — so we’ll be settling for Cordyseps militaris, like the plebs we are. It’s the more sustainable and cost-effective form, and it still packs tons of amazing benefits! Cordyseps has been used for thousands of years and was traditionally used for sexual potency, vital energy and vitality, as well as athletic endurance. In Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), it’s recommended for gastric, cervical, and oral cancers, various infectious diseases, as well as bronchial inflammation, asthma, and general lung deficiency (19). I’ve used cordyseps as a lung tonic, since I would often develop a bit of a cough after a hard run, and it was extremely beneficial. I would take one capsule from Real Mushrooms (not an sponsor) about 20 minutes before I ran and I felt noticeably different, and I saw the same effect with other exercises and trips to the gym. I’m currently testing other herbal remedies on myself, but I’d love to return to cordyseps soon.

Scientifically, we know that cordyseps contains 3.79% β-glucans (10, 26), but it’s still undergoing trials and the results from the research are mixed on the potency of its effects. We know it works wonderfully in stimulating the immune system and could work as a preventative against certain types of cancers (11). There’s also promising research on cordyseps as a kidney-protectant, helping those who’ve received kidney transplants build the strength and function of their new kidney, though the jury is still out on this (12, 13). In terms of exercise and endurance, the study results are mixed with some studies saying it’s great for an athletic boost, and other studies saying it does nothing. However, there are several studies showing its effectiveness of the lungs: it cut recovery time in half for a small group of COVID patients (14), it increased oxygen saturation in the blood (15), and it had beneficial effects for lung fibrosis in rats (16). Cordycepin, a main constituent of cordyseps, was the main star in many of these studies included here. I know what you really want to talk about, you dirty monster. Yes, cordyseps has been shown to increase sexual arousal and erectile function, but only in mice models for now (17).

We’re really flying through the benefits of cordyseps, but the main idea here is that cordyseps has been used for centuries to promote vitality and health, especially in the lungs/respiratory system. It’s also traditionally prescribed for kidney deficiencies, immune deficiencies, and to heighten sexual drive. While these usages are still under scientific research, it’s important to recognize the validity of historical uses. Scientists can research all they want, but I doubt that the people who’ve employed cordyseps in the traditional ways for so long have any intention of changing, regardless of whether or not a placebo-double-blind-control-group study agrees with them.

Reishi. Wow. I almost couldn’t choose a picture, and I almost didn’t want to. I wanted to keep scrolling and beholding this beauty! This is Apollo’s mushroom.

If you’ve made it this far, then thank you for being such a nerd. We need more of you in the world. Ganoderma lucidum is the last mushroom we’re covering. There’re many species of reishi and each one has its own unique amounts of β-glucans, so the β-glucan content ranges from 4.3–23.6% per 100g when dried. This also depends a bit on the extraction method — a higher temperature, among other things, will extract out more β-glucans (37) — but suffice to say, reishi has a range of β-glucans nestled inside of its beautiful rings, and they’re working hard in the body. One study I found seemed to summarize reishi’s actions the best: “Broad spectrum of its pharmacological actions have been established which include immunomodulation, anticancer, antidiabetic, antioxidant, antiatherosclerotic, antifibrotic, chemopreventive, antitumor, anticancer drug toxicity prevention, analgesic, anti inflammatory, antinociceptive, antimicrobial, hypolipidemic, hepatoprotective, antiandrogenic, antiangiogenic, antiherpetic, antiarthritic, antiosteoporotic, antiaging, antiulcer properties and estrogenic activity” (39). Reishi is one busy mushroom! Traditionally, reishi was purported to offer immortality, and you can laugh all you want at the notion that a mushroom could give you eternal life, but reishi has science-backed effects on DNA that promote longevity (38), and with such a laundry list of benefits it doesn’t shock me in the least that it could help someone live a bit longer. As with all the mushrooms discussed here, reishi is also a wonderful anti-cancer agent, with it’s β-glucan content doing what it does best and stimulating the immune system to kill what shouldn’t be there, however reishi also adds it’s triterpenes to the mix, which have potent anti-cancer actions including “inhibition of cell proliferation through cancer-specific cell cycle arrest and apoptosis, and inhibition of metastasis by inhibition of pre-metastatic gene expression” (38). Reishi, like turkey tail, also has wonderful benefits for the brain. It’s been shown to increase neurogenesis and remedy cognitive deficients in mice models (40, 41). Reishi has been shown a promising ability to combat all manner of neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s, and Huntington’s by significantly reducing neuronal loss and damage, and modulating key signaling pathways in the brain (41). The fun doesn’t stop there though! Reishi is incredibly beneficial for the liver, significantly reducing signs of liver stress and inflammation (19), moreover it normalizes liver enzyme levels, reduces liver pain, and acts as a liver protectant (42).

What a miraculous mushroom! Reishi strengthens our immune system, our mind, our liver, and more. The ancients had an idea of what they were talking about when they used it to prolong life. Like turkey tail, I’d highly recommend scrolling through some pictures of reishi so you can have a look at all the beautiful varieties!

Sources

(1) Du, B., Bian, Z., & Xu, B. (2014). Skin health promotion effects of natural beta‐glucan derived from cereals and microorganisms: a review. Phytotherapy Research, 28(2), 159-166.

(2) Caseiro, C., Dias, J. N. R., de Andrade Fontes, C. M. G., & Bule, P. (2022). From Cancer Therapy to Winemaking: The Molecular Structure and Applications of β-Glucans and β-1, 3-Glucanases. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 23(6), 3156. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms23063156

(3) Brennan, Charles S., and Louise J. Cleary. “The potential use of cereal (1→3,1→4)-β-D-glucans as functional food ingredients.” Journal of Cereal Science, vol. 42, no. 1, July 2005, pp. 1–13, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcs.2005.01.002.

(4) Du, B., Meenu, M., Liu, H., & Xu, B. (2019). A concise review on the molecular structure and function relationship of β-glucan. International journal of molecular sciences, 20(16), 4032.

(5) Murphy, E. J., Rezoagli, E., Major, I., Rowan, N., & Laffey, J. G. (2021). β-Glucans. Encyclopedia, 1(3), 831-847.

(6) Singh, R. P., & Bhardwaj, A. (2023). β-glucans: a potential source for maintaining gut microbiota and the immune system. Frontiers in nutrition, 10, 1143682. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2023.1143682

(7) Akramienė, D., Kondrotas, A., Didžiapetrienė, J., & Kėvelaitis, E. (2007). Effects of ß-glucans on the immune system. Medicina, 43(8), 597. https://doi.org/10.3390/medicina43080076

(8) Fujiike, A. Y., Lee, C. Y. A. L., Rodrigues, F. S. T., Oliveira, L. C. B., Barbosa-Dekker, A. M., Dekker, R. F. H., … Serpeloni, J. M. (2022). Anticancer effects of carboxymethylated (1→3)(1→6)-β-D-glucan (botryosphaeran) on multicellular tumor spheroids of MCF-7 cells as a model of breast cancer. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, Part A, 85(13), 521–537. https://doi.org/10.1080/15287394.2022.2048153

(9) Hjorth T, Schadow A, Revheim I, et al Sixteen-week multicentre randomised controlled trial to study the effect of the consumption of an oat beta-glucan-enriched bread versus a whole-grain wheat bread on glycaemic control among persons with pre-diabetes: a study protocol of the CarbHealth study BMJ Open 2022;12:e062066. doi: 10.1136/bmjopen-2022-062066

(10) Song H. N. (2020). Functional Cordyceps Coffee Containing Cordycepin and β-Glucan. Preventive nutrition and food science, 25(2), 184–193. https://doi.org/10.3746/pnf.2020.25.2.184

(11) Yoon, S. Y., Park, S. J., & Park, Y. J. (2018). The Anticancer Properties of Cordycepin and Their Underlying Mechanisms. International journal of molecular sciences, 19(10), 3027. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms19103027

(12) Zhang Z, Wang X, Zhang Y, Ye G. Effect of Cordyceps sinensis on renal function of patients with chronic allograft nephropathy. Urol Int. 2011;86(3):298-301. doi: 10.1159/000323655. Epub 2011 Feb 19. PMID: 21335937.

(13) Hong, T., Zhang, M., & Fan, J. (2015). Cordyceps sinensis (a traditional Chinese medicine) for kidney transplant recipients. The Cochrane database of systematic reviews, 2015(10), CD009698. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD009698.pub2

(14) Dubhashi, S., Sinha, S., Dwivedi, S., Ghanekar, J., Kadam, S., Samant, P., Datta, V., Singh, S., Chaudry, I. H., Gurmet, P., Kelkar, H., Mishra, R., Galwankar, S., & Agrawal, A. (2023). Early Trends to Show the Efficacy of Cordyceps militaris in Mild to Moderate COVID Inflammation. Cureus, 15(8), e43731. https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.43731

(15) Pasha, S. M., Rajan, A. N., Rathod, L., Musfera, S., & Pasha, C. (2024). Improved oxygen saturation and performance of athletes using Cordyceps Militaris. Asian Journal of Biological Sciences, 17(1), 85–92. https://doi.org/10.3923/ajbs.2024.85.92

(16) Chen, M., Cheung, F. W., Chan, M. H., Hui, P. K., Ip, S. P., Ling, Y. H., Che, C. T., & Liu, W. K. (2012). Protective roles of Cordyceps on lung fibrosis in cellular and rat models. Journal of ethnopharmacology, 143(2), 448–454. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2012.06.033

(17) Pohsa, S., Hanchang, W., Singpoonga, N., Chaiprasart, P., & Taepavarapruk, P. (2020). Effects of Cultured Cordycep militaris on Sexual Performance and Erectile Function in Streptozotocin-Induced Diabetic Male Rats. BioMed research international, 2020, 4198397. https://doi.org/10.1155/2020/4198397

(18) Panda, A. K., & Swain, K. C. (2011). Traditional Uses and Medicinal Potential of Cordyceps sinensis of Sikkim. Journal of Ayurveda & Integrative Medicine, 2(1), 9–13.

(19) Hobbs, C. (2021). Christopher Hobbs’s Medicinal Mushrooms: The essential guide. Storey Publishing.

(20) Wasser S. Medicinal mushrooms as a source of antitumor and immunomodulating polysaccharides. Applied microbiology and biotechnology. 2002;60(3):258–74. 10.1007/s00253-002-1076-7

(21) Awadasseid, A., Hou, J., Gamallat, Y., Xueqi, S., Eugene, K. D., Musa Hago, A., Bamba, D., Meyiah, A., Gift, C., & Xin, Y. (2017). Purification, characterization, and antitumor activity of a novel glucan from the fruiting bodies of Coriolus Versicolor. PloS one, 12(2), e0171270. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0171270

(22) Mirończuk-Chodakowska, I., Kujawowicz, K., & Witkowska, A. M. (2021). Beta-Glucans from Fungi: Biological and Health-Promoting Potential in the COVID-19 Pandemic Era. Nutrients, 13(11), 3960. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13113960

(23) Wang, Q.; Sheng, X.; Shi, A.; Hu, H.; Yang, Y.; Liu, L.; Fei, L.; Liu, H. β-Glucans: Relationships between modification, conformation and functional activities. Molecules 2017, 22, 257.

(24) Zheng, X.; Lu, F.; Xu, X.; Zhang, L. Extended chain conformation of β-glucan and its effect on antitumor activity. J. Mater. Chem. B 2017, 5, 5623–5631.

(25) Zaidman, BZ., Yassin, M., Mahajna, J. et al. Medicinal mushroom modulators of molecular targets as cancer therapeutics. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 67, 453–468 (2005). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00253-004-1787-z

(26) Łysakowska, P., Sobota, A., & Wirkijowska, A. (2023). Medicinal Mushrooms: Their Bioactive Components, Nutritional Value and Application in Functional Food Production-A Review. Molecules (Basel, Switzerland), 28(14), 5393. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28145393

(27) Olaide Olawunmi Ajibola, Cirilo Nolasco-Hipolito, Octavio Carvajal-Zarrabal, Shanti F Salleh, Gbadebo C Adeyinka, Stephen A Adefegha, Mirja K Ahmmed, Kazi Sumaiya, Raymond Thomas, Turkey tail mushroom (Trametes versicolor): an edible macrofungi with immense medicinal properties, Current Opinion in Food Science, Volume 58, 2024, 101191, ISSN 2214-7993, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cofs.2024.101191.

(28) Tanaka, H., Muguruma, K., Ohira, M., Kubo, N., Yamashita, Y., Maeda, K., Sawada, T., & Hirakawa, K. (2012). Impact of adjuvant immunochemotherapy using protein-bound polysaccharide-K on overall survival of patients with gastric cancer. Anticancer research, 32(8), 3427–3433.

(29) Ito, G., Tanaka, H., Ohira, M., Yoshii, M., Muguruma, K., Kubo, N. ... Hirakawa, K. (2012). Correlation between efficacy of PSK postoperative adjuvant immunochemotherapy for gastric cancer and expression of MHC class I. Experimental and Therapeutic Medicine, 3, 925-930. https://doi.org/10.3892/etm.2012.537

(30) Hsu, J.-T., Hsu, C.-S., Le, P.-H., Chen, T.-C., Chou, W.-C., Lin, C.-Y., & Yeh, T.-S. (2017). IMMUNOCHEMOTHERAPY benefits in gastric cancer patients stratified by programmed death-1 ligand-1. Journal of Surgical Research, 211, 30–38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jss.2016.11.058

(31) Habtemariam S. (2020). Trametes versicolor (Synn. Coriolus versicolor) Polysaccharides in Cancer Therapy: Targets and Efficacy. Biomedicines, 8(5), 135. https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines8050135

(32) Yang X., Sit W.H., Chan D.K., Wan J.M. The cell death process of the anticancer agent polysaccharide-peptide (PSP) in human promyelocytic leukemic HL-60 cells. Oncol. Rep. 2005;13:1201–1210. doi: 10.3892/or.13.6.1201.

(33) Fujii, T., Saito, K., Matsunaga, K., Oguchi, Y., Ikuzawa, M., Furusho, T., & Taguchi, T. (1995). Prolongation of the survival period with the biological response modifier PSK in rats bearing N-methyl-N-nitrosourea-induced mammary gland tumors. In vivo (Athens, Greece), 9(1), 55–57.

(34) Qian Z.M., Xu M.F., Tang P.L. Polysaccharide peptide (PSP) restores immunosuppression induced by cyclophosphamide in rats. Am. J. Chin. Med. 1997;25:27–35. doi: 10.1142/S0192415X97000068

(35) Shi, S., Yin, L., Shen, X., Dai, Y., Wang, J., Yin, D., Zhang, D., & Pan, X. (2022). β-Glucans from Trametes versicolor (L.) Lloyd Is Effective for Prevention of Influenza Virus Infection. Viruses, 14(2), 237. https://doi.org/10.3390/v14020237

(36) Lemieszek, M., & Rzeski, W. (2012). Anticancer properties of polysaccharides isolated from fungi of the Basidiomycetes class. Contemporary oncology (Poznan, Poland), 16(4), 285–289. https://doi.org/10.5114/wo.2012.30055

(37) Kiss, A., Grünvald, P., Ladányi, M., Papp, V., Papp, I., Némedi, E., & Mirmazloum, I. (2021). Heat Treatment of Reishi Medicinal Mushroom (Ganoderma lingzhi) Basidiocarp Enhanced Its β-glucan Solubility, Antioxidant Capacity and Lactogenic Properties. Foods (Basel, Switzerland), 10(9), 2015. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods10092015

(38) María Soledad Vela Gurovic, Fátima R. Viceconte, Marcelo T. Pereyra, Maximiliano A. Bidegain, María Amelia Cubitto, DNA damaging potential of Ganoderma lucidum extracts, Journal of Ethnopharmacology, Volume 217, 2018, Pages 83-88, ISSN 0378-8741, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2018.02.005.

(39) Md Faruque Ahmad, Ganoderma lucidum: Persuasive biologically active constituents and their health endorsement, Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy, Volume 107, 2018, Pages 507-519, ISSN 0753-3322, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopha.2018.08.036.

(40) Polysaccharides from Ganoderma lucidum Promote Cognitive Function and Neural Progenitor Proliferation in Mouse Model of Alzheimer's Disease, Stem Cell Reports, Volume 8, Issue 1, 2017, Pages 84-94, ISSN 2213-6711, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.stemcr.2016.12.007.

(41) Lian, W., Yang, X., Duan, Q., Li, J., Zhao, Y., Yu, C., He, T., Sun, T., Zhao, Y., & Wang, W. (2024). The Biological Activity of Ganoderma lucidum on Neurodegenerative Diseases: The Interplay between Different Active Compounds and the Pathological Hallmarks. Molecules, 29(11), 2516. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules29112516

(42) Buhner, S. H. (2000). Botanical Medicines for Hepatitis C and the Liver. In Herbs for Hepatitis C and the Liver (pp. 46–48). Storey.